Ingeniería Biomédica
2025-10-25
A system is a rule that maps an input signal to an output signal. In continuous time and discrete time we depict and denote: \[ x(t)\ \longrightarrow\ y(t),\qquad x[n]\ \longrightarrow\ y[n]. \] These are the standard input–output representations used throughout the text.
We often write the system as an operator ( {} ): \[ y(t)=\mathcal{T}\{x(t)\},\qquad y[n]=\mathcal{T}\{x[n]\}. \] Block diagrams are used to represent systems and interconnections (series/cascade and parallel).
A system specifies how an input signal produces an output signal: \[ x(t)\ \longrightarrow\ y(t),\qquad x[n]\ \longrightarrow\ y[n]. \] We study types of relations used in analysis and design: - Memoryless (static) mappings - Differential/difference-equation descriptions - Convolution (LTI) - Transform-domain forms (frequency, Laplace, (z)) - State–space (first-order vector form) - Time-varying vs time-invariant, linear vs nonlinear
A memoryless or static system relates input and output at the same instant: \[ y(t)=F\!\big(x(t)\big),\qquad y[n]=F\!\big(x[n]\big). \] Examples: (y=|x|), (y=x^2), saturation and clipping nonlinearities. These are common as pointwise nonlinear stages preceding or following LTI blocks.
Many continuous-time LTI systems are described by an LCCDE: \[ \sum_{k=0}^{N} a_k\,\frac{d^{\,k} y(t)}{dt^{\,k}} \;=\; \sum_{m=0}^{M} b_m\,\frac{d^{\,m} x(t)}{dt^{\,m}}, \qquad a_0\neq 0. \] Coefficients (a_k,b_m) are constants for time invariance. This form covers standard electrical/mechanical systems and filters.
Discrete-time LTI systems admit an LCCD equation: \[ \sum_{k=0}^{N} a_k\,y[n-k]\;=\;\sum_{m=0}^{M} b_m\,x[n-m],\qquad a_0\neq 0. \] This representation includes IIR/FIR digital filters and many algorithmic recursions.
For LTI systems the input–output relation is convolution with the impulse response: \[ y(t)=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} h(\tau)\,x(t-\tau)\,d\tau,\qquad y[n]=\sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} h[k]\;x[n-k]. \] Here (h(t)) or (h[n]) is the output to a unit impulse. Causality for LTI corresponds to (h(t)=0) for (t<0) (or (h[n]=0) for (n<0)).
When Fourier transforms exist, convolution becomes multiplication: \[ Y(\omega)=H(\omega)\,X(\omega),\qquad Y\!\big(e^{j\omega}\big)=H\!\big(e^{j\omega}\big)\,X\!\big(e^{j\omega}\big). \] (H) is the frequency response (CTFT/DTFT). Magnitude (|H|) scales, phase (H) shifts/warps timing.
With Laplace and (z)-transforms (for appropriate regions of convergence): \[ Y(s)=H(s)\,X(s),\qquad Y(z)=H(z)\,X(z), \] and for LCCDE/LCCD systems \[ H(s)=\frac{b_0+b_1 s+\cdots+b_M s^M}{a_0+a_1 s+\cdots+a_N s^N},\qquad H(z)=\frac{b_0+b_1 z^{-1}+\cdots+b_M z^{-M}}{a_0+a_1 z^{-1}+\cdots+a_N z^{-N}}. \] These rational forms support pole–zero analysis and stability checks.
An equivalent input–output formulation uses state variables: \[ \dot{\mathbf{s}}(t)=\mathbf{A}\,\mathbf{s}(t)+\mathbf{b}\,x(t),\qquad y(t)=\mathbf{c}^\top\mathbf{s}(t)+d\,x(t). \] Discrete time: \[ \mathbf{s}[n+1]=\mathbf{A}\,\mathbf{s}[n]+\mathbf{b}\,x[n],\qquad y[n]=\mathbf{c}^\top\mathbf{s}[n]+d\,x[n]. \] This first-order form is algebraically equivalent to LCCDE/LCCD for LTI systems.
For wide-sense stationary (WSS) inputs to an LTI system: \[ \mu_y=\mu_x\,H(0)\ \text{(when defined)},\qquad S_{yy}(\omega)=\big|H(\omega)\big|^2\,S_{xx}(\omega). \] This links input and output statistics through (H), supporting noise and SNR analysis.
Causal: output depends only on present/past input values. For LTI systems, causality is characterized by the impulse response: \[ \text{Discrete time: } h[n]=0\ \text{for } n<0;\qquad \text{Continuous time: } h(t)=0\ \text{for } t<0. \] Under these conditions, the convolution reduces to depend only on past/present input.
Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) stability: bounded input implies bounded output. For LTI systems: \[ \sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} |h[k]| < \infty \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad \text{discrete-time LTI is stable}, \] \[ \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} |h(t)|\,dt < \infty \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad \text{continuous-time LTI is stable}. \] These are necessary and sufficient conditions.
A system is linear if it satisfies additivity and homogeneity: for any signals (x_1,x_2) and scalar (c), \[ \mathcal{T}\{x_1+x_2\}=\mathcal{T}\{x_1\}+\mathcal{T}\{x_2\},\qquad \mathcal{T}\{c\,x\}=c\,\mathcal{T}\{x\}. \] (These two conditions together are equivalent to linearity.)
A system is time-invariant if a shift in the input produces an identical shift in the output: \[ \mathcal{T}\{x(t-t_0)\}=y(t-t_0),\ \text{whenever}\ y(t)=\mathcal{T}\{x(t)\}. \] Analogously in discrete time with shifts by integer indices. (Definition used throughout the text in system properties and LTI analysis.)
A system is invertible if distinct inputs produce distinct outputs; equivalently, there exists an inverse system that recovers the input from the output. Example pair (discrete time): the accumulator and the first-difference operator are inverses: \[ y[n]=\sum_{k=-\infty}^{n} x[k] \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad x[n]=y[n]-y[n-1]. \]
For LTI systems, interconnections admit simple algebraic descriptions via transforms: e.g., in the Laplace domain, series and parallel lead to product and sum of system functions, respectively: \[ H_{\text{series}}(s)=H_1(s)H_2(s),\qquad H_{\text{parallel}}(s)=H_1(s)+H_2(s). \]
Importante
The digital filter separates the noise and the information of a discrete signal.
Suppose a discrete time system \[ y[n] = \sum_{k=1}^{K} a_k y[n - k] + \sum_{m=0}^{M} b_m x[n - m]\]
K y M are the order of the filter.
We must know the initial condition.
Gain
\[y[n] = G x[n]\]
Delay of \(n_0\) samples
\[y[n] = x[n - n_0]\]
Two points moving average
\[y[n] = \frac{1}{2} (x[n] + x[n - 1])\]
Euler approximation of the derivative
\[y[n] = \frac{x[n] - x[n - 1]}{T_s}\]
Averaging over N consecutive epochs of duration L
\[y[n] = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} x[n - kL]\]
Trapezoidal integration formula
\[y[n] = y[n - 1] + \frac{T_s}{2} (x[n] + x[n - 1])\]
Digital “leaky integrator” (First-order lowpass filter)
\[y[n] = a y[n - 1] + x[n], \quad 0 < a < 1\]
Digital resonator (Second-order system)
\[y[n] = a_1 y[n - 1] + a_2 y[n - 2] + b x[n], \quad a_1^2 + 4a_2 < 0\]
For a system’s response to be fully described by its impulse response, the system must satisfy the following key conditions.
Linearity
If the system responds to \(x_1[n]\) with \(y_1[n]\) and to \(x_2[n]\) with \(y_2[n]\), then:
\[y[n] = y_1[n] + y_2[n]\]
Homogeneity
If the input is scaled by a constant \(c\), the output is also scaled:
\[\text{If } x[n] \rightarrow y[n], \text{ then } cx[n] \rightarrow cy[n]\]
Time Invariance
A system must be time-invariant, meaning a time shift in the input causes the same shift in the output:
\[\text{If } x[n] \rightarrow y[n], \text{ then } x[n - n_0] \rightarrow y[n - n_0]\]
Causality
A causal system is one where the output at time \(n\) depends only on present and past inputs:
\[h[n] = 0 \quad \forall n < 0\]
Stability
If the impulse response does not satisfy this condition, the system may produce unbounded outputs.
\[\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} |h[n]| < \infty\]
Convolution Representation
If all condition met then \[y[n] = x[n] * h[n] = \sum_{m=-\infty}^{\infty} x[m] h[n - m]\]